Grammar Flashcards
All 49 cards in this deck
What is a noun, and why do nouns matter in analysis and writing?
A word that names a person, place, thing or idea. Concrete nouns can be seen or touched (kettle); abstract nouns name ideas or feelings (fear, hope). In analysis, abstract nouns often show what a text is really about. In writing, a precise noun (terrier, bungalow) does more work than a vague noun plus adjectives.
What is a verb, and why do verbs matter in analysis and writing?
A word for an action, a state or an event (run, seem, happen). Verbs are often the most powerful word choices to analyse: lurched tells you far more than walked. In your own writing, one precise verb beats a weak verb plus an adverb (crept, not walked quietly).
What is an adjective, and what should you watch out for when using them?
A word that describes a noun (a brittle leaf). Adjectives shape the reader's impression of a person or place. In Q5, piling up several before every noun reads as forced; one well-chosen adjective is stronger.
What is an adverb, and how can adverbs vary your sentences?
A word that modifies a verb, adjective or another adverb, often ending in -ly (slowly, very, never). Opening a sentence with one (Reluctantly, she opened the letter.) varies your sentence openings and shows a character's attitude straight away.
What is a pronoun, and why do you and we matter in Paper 2?
A word that stands in for a noun (I, she, they, it). You addresses the reader directly. We is inclusive: it puts the writer and reader on the same side. Both are key persuasive methods in Paper 2 Q5 and worth analysing in Paper 2 Q3 and Q4.
What is a preposition, and how can prepositional phrases help your writing?
A word showing position, direction or time: under, across, before, beneath. Opening with a prepositional phrase (Beneath the pier, the water churned.) sets the scene first and varies sentence openings.
What is the difference between coordinating and subordinating conjunctions?
Coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) join two equal clauses. Subordinating conjunctions (because, although, when, unless, if) introduce a clause that depends on the main one. Using both lets you build compound and complex sentences, which AO6 rewards as a range of sentence forms.
What are modal verbs, and what effect can they have?
Helping verbs that show certainty, possibility or obligation: must, should, will, could, might. We must act now sounds urgent and certain; this might help sounds tentative. They're useful for controlling tone in argument writing.
In The wind clawed at the windows, what word class is clawed, and what is its effect?
A verb. It also personifies the wind as a wild animal attacking the house. That makes the weather feel violent and deliberate, which builds a sense of threat.
In She closed the door gently behind her, what word class is gently, and what does it suggest?
An adverb (it modifies the verb closed). It suggests care or caution. She may be trying not to wake someone, or not to show how upset she is.
In Her anger filled the room, what word class is anger?
An abstract noun. Treating the emotion as something solid that fills a room makes it feel overwhelming, as if everyone present can sense it.
How should you use word-class terms in a language analysis answer?
Name the word class only when you go on to explain the effect of that particular word. The writer uses a verb earns nothing on its own. The verb 'lurched' suggests he has lost control does. Examiners call naming without effect feature spotting.
What is the difference between a main clause and a subordinate clause?
A main clause has a subject and verb and makes sense on its own (the dog barked). A subordinate clause adds information but can't stand alone (because it heard a noise).
What is a simple sentence, and what effect can it have?
One main clause: The door slammed. Simple sentences are clear and direct. After longer sentences, one can create impact, shock or tension, or make an important point stand out.
What is a compound sentence, and what effect can it have?
Two or more main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, so): The rain stopped and the sun came out. They can show events happening in sequence, build up details, or set two ideas against each other with but.
What is a complex sentence, and what effect can it have?
A main clause plus at least one subordinate clause: Although she was exhausted, she kept running. They can explain causes, conditions or contrasts, and add layers of detail. Using them accurately shows the control AO6 rewards.
What is a minor sentence, and when should you use one?
A sentence without a main verb: Silence. / Not again. It creates emphasis, shock or a pause for thought. Use it deliberately and rarely, after a longer sentence, so the examiner can see it's a choice rather than a mistake.
What does a relative clause add to a sentence?
A relative clause starts with who, which, that or whose and gives extra detail about a noun: The man, who had not slept for days, stared at the screen. Embedding it mid-sentence packs in information and makes the sentence complex.
What are the four sentence functions?
Declarative: a statement (It is cold.). Interrogative: a question (Is it cold?). Imperative: a command (Shut the window.). Exclamative: an exclamation (How cold it is!).
What effect can imperatives have in Paper 2 writing?
They tell the reader to act (Imagine…, Think about…, Sign the petition today). That creates urgency and directness, and makes a strong call to action at the end of a speech or article.
What effect does a fronted subordinate clause have?
Starting with the subordinate clause delays the main action: Just as I reached the door, the lights went out. That builds suspense or sets the scene first, and it varies how your sentences open.
How do varied sentence forms earn AO6 credit?
The top AO6 level wants a full range of appropriate sentence forms for effect. Variety alone isn't enough. Choose each form for a reason, such as a short sentence after a long one at the moment of tension, or a question to draw the reader in.
Classify this sentence: The wind dropped and the sea went still.
Compound. Two main clauses (the wind dropped, the sea went still) are joined by the coordinating conjunction and. Each could stand alone.
Classify this sentence: Because the bridge had collapsed, the village was cut off for a week.
Complex. Because the bridge had collapsed is a subordinate clause; it can't stand alone. The village was cut off for a week is the main clause.
How should you write about sentence types in Paper 1 Q3 (structure)?
Don't just say a short sentence creates tension. Examiners criticise comments that could fit any extract. Explain why that sentence is placed there: what it follows, what it shifts the focus to, and what it makes the reader expect.
What is subject–verb agreement?
The verb must match its subject in number: a singular subject takes a singular verb, and a plural subject takes a plural verb. The dog barks. / The dogs bark. Examiners name agreement errors as one of the most common AO6 weaknesses.
How do you make the verb agree when words come between the subject and the verb?
Find the main noun, not the nearest one. The box of chocolates was on the table (the box was). A list of the winners is on the wall (the list is).
Do words like everyone, each and nobody take a singular or plural verb?
Singular: Everyone was silent. / Each of the rooms has a window. / Nobody knows.
What verb follows two subjects joined by and?
A plural verb: My brother and I were late. / The rain and the wind have stopped.
How do you make there is and there are agree?
Look at the noun that comes after: There is one reason / There are three reasons. A common slip is there's with a plural (there's lots of reasons). Write there are.
With either…or and neither…nor, which subject does the verb agree with?
The nearer one: Neither the teacher nor the students were ready. / Either the students or the teacher is wrong.
What is tense consistency, and why does it matter in Q5?
Stay in the tense you started in unless time genuinely changes. Stories that drift between past and present (I walked in and I see…) look out of control, which is a commonly named AO6 weakness.
What effect does writing a story in the present tense have?
It creates immediacy, as if events are unfolding now and the reader is right there. Both tenses are fine; what matters is that you choose one and keep to it.
When do you use the past perfect (had + past participle)?
For an event that happened before another past event: By the time we arrived, the film had started. It is also a neat way to slip into a flashback within a past-tense story.
Correct this: One of the windows were broken.
One of the windows was broken. The subject is one, which is singular; windows is just the noun nearest the verb.
Correct the tense slip: I walked into the room and I see a man sitting in the corner.
I walked into the room and I saw a man sitting in the corner. The sentence starts in the past tense, so it must stay there.
How can you check your Q5 answer for agreement errors?
They usually hide in long sentences. For each main verb, find its subject (who or what is doing it) and check that both are singular or both plural. Then check that every paragraph keeps the same tense.
What is Standard English?
The form of English whose grammar and vocabulary are accepted as correct in formal writing. It isn't an accent, and it doesn't mean posh vocabulary. AQA's top AO6 level asks for Standard English used consistently and appropriately.
What is wrong with we was and you was?
Was goes with singular subjects (I, he, she, it). With we, you and they, Standard English uses were: we were, you were, they were.
Why is should of non-standard, and what should you write?
After should, could, would, might or must, the verb is have: I should have checked. Should of is the spoken contraction should've written down as it sounds.
Why is Me and him went to town non-standard?
The subject of a sentence needs subject pronouns (I, he, she, we, they), not object pronouns (me, him, her). Write He and I went to town. Test it by removing the other person: you'd say I went, not me went.
Which is Standard English: between you and me or between you and I?
Between you and me. After a preposition (between, with, for), use object pronouns: me, him, her. You'd say with me, not with I.
What is wrong with I seen it and I done it?
Seen and done are past participles, so they need have. Write I saw it / I have seen it and I did it / I have done it.
What is a double negative, and why should you avoid it?
Two negatives in one clause: I didn't do nothing. In Standard English this should be I didn't do anything or I did nothing. Strictly, the two negatives cancel out.
What's wrong with them books and the man what I met?
Them is a pronoun, not a determiner; write those books. What isn't used as a relative pronoun; write the man who (or that) I met.
Which is Standard English: She played really good or She played really well?
She played really well. It's describing how she played (a verb), so it needs the adverb well, not the adjective good.
When should you use fewer rather than less?
Fewer for things you can count (fewer cars, fewer people); less for amounts you can't (less traffic, less time).
Rewrite in Standard English: We was sat there for ages.
We were sitting there for ages (or We sat there for ages). We was should be we were, and was sat / was stood are non-standard forms of sitting / standing.
Can you ever use non-standard English in Q5?
Yes, inside dialogue, to give a character a believable voice, as long as it's clearly deliberate. The narrative voice and Paper 2 arguments should stay in Standard English. Avoid slang and text-speak (gonna, u) unless it's in a character's speech.